Chinese Ceramics and the Maritime Trade pre 1700
22nd August – 10th December 2006

Chinese Ceramics and the Maritime Trade pre 1700, opens at the Museum of East Asian Art on 22nd August 2006. This fascinating exhibition is an introduction to the relatively unknown subject of Chinese ceramics made specifically for export pre 1700. Exploring the history and diversity of ceramic wares produced in non-imperial kilns, this exhibition uncovers the diverse markets Chinese ceramics catered for from the 7th century up until 1700.

For centuries the Chinese bureaucracy was ambivalent about trade as the Empire's guiding philosophy was founded upon Confucianism, which considered that ‘the mind of a little man who dwells on profit and trade is inherently demeaning'. A s a result direct trade between foreign and Chinese merchants was prohibited and the only legalised system was by way of presentation of tribute to the Emperor or more often his officials. Reciprocate goods would only be offered to the tribute bearer up to the deemed value of the tribute given. Throughout subsequent Chinese history these ideas would influence and shape the Chinese ceramic export trade.

By the 2nd century AD the establishment of overland routes to the west allowed trading networks to develop, however though trade became tolerated, it was heavily taxed. Only small amounts of Chinese ceramics were ever exported via these ‘overland silk routes' as the vast majority of ceramics exports were carried to their destinations via the maritime trade. Ceramic items were often heavy and fragile, and therefore transportation by sea was a much cheaper and safer option.

Archaeological finds establish that exportation of Chinese ceramics by sea had already started as early as the 7th century and became substantial by the 8th century. Certain designs and shapes were made to cater for the tastes of the countries to which they were exported.

Green wares, such as Yue or celadons, and white wares were the premier trade ceramics of China from the 8th to the 14th century, and as highlighted in the exhibition, these wares were exported to markets in Southeast Asia, such as Thailand, Indonesia and the Philippines, as well as to ports round the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf.

In the later Southern Song dynasty (1127 -1279 AD), the necessity to raise funds to buy off the Jin tartars and the advent of neo-Confucianism led to a deepened interest in commerce and foreign maritime trade. Imperial decrees encouraging trade led to a great increase in the Chinese ceramics exported by sea and heightened the production of porcelain. The Jingdezhen kilns, famous for their production of high quality ceramics such as qingbai (white wares) and later blue and white porcelain greatly expanded their production to cater for this trade and ultimately became the predominant centre in China for the production of fine quality ceramics.

By the last decade of the 15th century, the discovery by the Portuguese of sea routes around the Cape of Good Hope initiated the direct participation by Europeans in the East Asian maritime trade.

After the Portuguese settled at Macao in 1553, their demand for porcelain led to a further increase in production at Jingdezhen, encouraging new designs more suitable for European tastes. Several examples of Kraak ware which was thought to have been named after the Portuguese ships (Carracks) which brought them to Europe , are featured in the exhibition. These wares would have been produced to cater for this demand and were the first examples of Chinese export wares to reach Europe in large quantities. This expansion of international trade soon opened up a broader market for Chinese ceramics.

Still this development was often hampered by the Emperors of the Ming dynasty (1368 – 1644 AD) who tried to re-impose strict controls on trade. Imperial decrees prohibited Jingdezhen from trading porcelain to foreign countries in 1447 and eventually banned all trade with foreigners between 1525 and 1684. They even banned the Chinese from going abroad on pain of death. Demand, however, for Chinese ceramics was such that these decrees were never wholly effective and enterprising merchants such as those from the Fujian province, who the authorities considered to be pirates, continued to trade illegally.

Determined to outwit the trading laws of the time, many Fujianese merchants altered their fishing vessels when out of sight of land, in order to take on further sails to make their ships fit for overseas travel. An imperial licence granted to Fujian in 1547 to allow some trade, made Fujian the main centre for exporting ceramics before the lifting of the Imperial trade ban in 1684.

In the late 16 th century the Dutch entered the trade and succeeded in capturing the virtual monopoly of the maritime trade with the establishment of the Dutch East India Company in 1602. The defeat of the Armada in 1588 had weakeedn the power of the Spanish and Portuguese, allowing the Dutch complete control over the maritime ceramic exports being shipped from China to Europe . Nonetheless by the mid 17 th century reduced output and disturbances in China led to severe shortages in export Chinese ceramics and the Dutch had to look to other Asian countries, such as Japan , for their source of fine ceramics.

For centuries, the spreading of Chinese production techniques via the maritime porcelain trade had strongly influenced the porcelain industries of Japan . Following the closure of the Jingdezhen kilns Japanese porcelain, in particular Imari and Arita wares, soon became a major new export industry. This industry became so exclusive that even the Chinese started copying these specific Japanese styles and colour palettes when the Jingdezhen kilns reopened in 1685.

After the Imperial ban was lifted in 1684, the Chinese market was opened up to all European powers who were thereafter permitted to set up factories at Canton and trade through the co-hong system. This system allowed traders to obtain whatever ceramics they demanded and therefore led to a vast increase in ceramics exported. Nevertheless with the pressure of other competing industries and the European discovery of how to make porcelain in the 1720s, imports of Chinese porcelain started to decline. Some exports such as made to order armorial porcelain still proved popular, but by the 19th century the demand for Chinese exports had effectively ended.

With over 100 pieces on show dating from the Tang (618 - 907AD) until the early Qing dynasty (1644 – 1911AD), this exhibition provides an insight into the importance of Chinese ceramics made specifically for export before 1700 and the involvement of the Arabians, Portuguese, Dutch, Japanese and later European powers in this maritime trade. The exhibition is on show until 10 th December 2006 and is accompanied by a fully illustrated catalogue.

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Digital images and/or slide transparencies also available